Informal language has a variety of functions in contemporary Australian society.
Here is a list of some of the crucial roles :
Paragraph 1: (Group/Social relationships) – The use of slang lowers the social distance
Informal language, particularly “slang” (informal in-group terminology) plays an important role in establishing group identities. Also known as the vernacular, informal terminology provides an artificial linguistic barrier between the in- and the out-group, whereby group members are privy to the subtleties of the language, the specialist terms of the group, and the neologisms that characterise informal discourse as colourful and fast-paced. In this sense the use of slang may be subversive and secretive, binding members together based on linguistic speech acts of solidarity.
- Jolly good fellows and part of the same club – camaraderie.. ; also shared knowledge of a sport, interest, leisure, etc.
- Barriers: often age-related; (barriers between youth and the elderly); Barriers between male and female
- Linguist Kate Burridge metaphorically describes language such as “teenspeak” as a “masonic mortar to stick members of a group together” that also simultaneously “erect[s] barriers between them and the outside”, and this has been exemplified through contemporary teenage slang and neologisms that enhance solidarity and reject outgroups.
- Informal lexemes and morphemes promote in-group membership between people of the same social circle, occupation, generation or lifestyle, whilst simultaneously excluding others. Nicknames or less official group labels are commonly used for the purpose of distinguishing members of groups from outsiders. For example, the players or supporters of an Australian Football League (AFL) team usually utilise hypocoristic surnames rather than first names, such as ‘Fitzy’ for the surname ‘Fitzgerald’ or ‘Richo’ for ‘Richardson’, to exemplify their closeness and team bonding. Moreover, the team may opt to utilise a slang label such as
Paragraph 2: (Group/Social relationships)
“Strine” or the Australian vernacular (informal non-standard usage of Australian Standard English) plays a critical role in establishing the boisterous “larrikin” identity that forms an integral part of our own national self-image. STRINE ALSO HELPS TO FORM A COMMON BOND WITH FELLOW AUSTRALIANS AND LOWERS SOCIAL DISTANCE – EVEN BETWEEN STRANGERS. The image of the irreverent, usually witty, larrikin with a casual and anti-authoritarian streak, sets us apart from our British and American linguistic partners. (relatable and casual – down-to-earth- personality). Witticisms – idioms and reductions, shortenings, and abbreviations (pollies etc) are an integral part of our image.
- “The spunky, anarchistic Australian vernacular has gained global gravitas. Nowhere else in the English-speaking world are MPs referred to as pollies and serious documentaries as docos”. Gary Nunn: The 500 new terms added to this august record of vocabulary finally formalise diction Down Under as fair dinkum. Now these words are afforded the solemn respect that archiving adds to them, as one of the most faithful ways to record a society’s anxieties, humour, culture, history, sensitivities and obsessions. Gary Nunn
- New Kylie Minogue advertisement; Oxford Dictionary : inclusion of terms =- sophisticated modern retake of the Hogan put a shrimp on the barbie add = informal/ sophisticated use of informal tersm.
- The view of mateship: the lexeme “mate” is used in conversations between strangers as a means of creating an affable atmosphere; it has “culturally ingrained connotations of egalitarianism and mutual respect”, which enables the interlocutors to feel an equal amount of regard for each other. The term “mate” also helps to minimise the initial awkwardness that can arise when communicating with a stranger, but it also leads to greater approachability and accessibility..
Strine is a Social leveller – Ash Barty: Australian values: Humble and respectful: Australian qualities –integrity and accessibility “I think Australian values are very strong. We love someone who has a crack, puts themselves on the line, and regardless of whether they win or lose, just goes out there and does the best, goes about it the right way.
- “When you become vulnerable and put yourself out there, it’s very challenging. Its very confronting, but it’s extremely rewarding.
- “Every single day I want to be kind, I want to be honest, I want to be humble, I want to give the best that I can. That’s all that matters for me.”
- “It’s just an ease of conversation, and approachability. And just knowing that there’s kind of no BS – we say it how it is. And that’s what I love. I love the honest. I love the humility and I love how humble Aussies are”(Barty)
Paragraph 3:
The use of informal language such as blasphemy, profanities, and colloquialisms also becomes a marker of our personality. Using informal discourse markers (“like”, “oh well” and “shit”) as well as intensifiers (“dead set”) etc. we express our frustrations, excitement, anger and joy. Advertisers often exploit the shock power of profanities, whilst helping to connect with an audience on a familiar and relatable level. (Bloody as the Great Australian Adjective)
- Australian speakers often use the adjective “bloody” as an intensifier; it includes socially acceptable and often positive connotations, stripping the adjective from its offensive nature. For instance, the non-standard phrase “fan-bloody-tastic”,
Barty: The word bloody has been dubbed the “Great Australian Adjective” (Bill Hornadge):
- “All things considered it was a bloody good effort tonight” (Barty’s comment after her three-set defeat of Naomi Osaka in the Beijing final 2019).
Paragraph 4: Informal lexemes and swearing also have the express purpose of conveying the emotional state of the speaker. Expressions of frustration, stress or aggression are commonly associated with intensifying and emphasising negative emotions. Offensive name-calling is a form of emotive abusive language. Politically incorrect epithets such as ‘b*tch’, ‘c**ksucker’, ‘f*ggot’ and ‘f*ckhead’ are all heavily gender, race or sexually associative words, chosen to verbally maim the listener or topic during arguments. Online, abbreviations such as ‘WTF’ (what the f*ck), ‘FFS’ (for f*cks sake) and ‘GTFO’ (get the f*ck out) have been formed for internet users in chat forums, comment sections or posts to vent with profane exclamations of annoyance whilst being euphemistic and
- Even in relatively formal discourse contexts, editors or opinion columnists use colloquial terms and clichés as semantic devices, as a means of conveying emotions. For example, in a column entitled “What pollies really mean when they say they are protecting jobs” by Ross Gittins, there are numerous informal linguistic terms (beginning with the reductive lexeme, “pollies”) that the economics editor uses to convey the depth of his frustration. He refers to the way they seek “to suck in unwary voters” — he is annoyed their dishonesty; to provide an element of shock (“the Wide Brown Land is going to cop it a lot harder than the green and pleasant lands’ )”; the informal cliché (“to cop it”) reinforces the problems, and the dangers of inaction on climate – to express one’s anger at the politicians for a lack of action and for not dealing with the dangerous problems that will occur. (Also “don’t assume it’s your job he’s promising to save”: to reach out as intuitively, as personally, and as spontaneously as possible to the public/voters.) “His preferred way of skinning the cat” – (which is to “skin” taxpayers’ money), will vary, but there will inevitably be higher taxes, unless the politicians follow the economists’ models =. “Dream on!” sarcastic in tone; “okay have it your way” – informal discourse marker, to address readers personally as well as to criticise “stupid” and unthinking voters.
- Not only are swear words a marker of group solidarity, they are also a marker of Australian identity – in particular, they indicate an “okker” personality. As Hornadge states, “It has been said that the language of Australians is peppered with the three indispensable Bs – Bastard, Bloody and Bugger”. (154) These terms are used to consolidate a broad Australian membership , and in particular separate Australians from other nationalities. They are often the first words that a migrant learns in order to gain acceptance. Writers in the Bulletin named ‘bloody’ as the Great Australian Adjective (in 1894) explaining that it is called thus “because it is more used and used more exclusively by Australians than by any other allegedly civilised nation” (150). For example, in most of the English-speaking world, “bastard” pejoratively refers to someone who is illegitimate. However, as Hornadge notes, visitors are often shocked to find that it is even a term of affection among Australian speakers. (154) If we wish to praise someone, we often say: “He’s a good bastard”, meaning that he is a good fellow”. (154)
- The bush-philosopher, Michael Sawtell, summed up the nuances of the word “bastard” as:
“It is utterly false to talk of the Great Australian Adjective. We should talk of the Great Australian noun .. .If we wish to express our contempt for a man, we say ‘He’s a proper bastard’, meaning he is vile. If we wish to praise him, we say: “He’s a good bastard”, meaning that he is a good fellow”. (154)
Profanity is an emotive communicative tool which plays a variety of roles in contemporary Australian society. Discuss.
Swearing and taboo terms are utilised in the everyday communication and language of Australian people. One of the most important roles of swearing is to express emotions – either positive or negative, and to intensify, vent or reveal the feelings of its users. In different social groups, profanities deviate from their standard functions to consolidate membership between the group’s participants. They also reflect a laid-back “okker” personality. Swear words which are specifically chosen to support their function has the ability to attract attention, controversy and a response to an advertisement or commercial from the targeted audience.
One of the most common use of profanity is as an expletive to express the emotional state of its speaker – frequently, anger, pain or excitement. According to David Crystal, swearing makes for “an excellent relief mechanism”; from a lexical perspective and as a discourse marker, it is common for people to say “f@ck” or “sh*t” when they stub their toe or slip over a rock, or drop a plate of their favourite cakes. Contrastingly, one uses profane lexemes in order to emphasise positive feelings of surprise, joy or love. The lexeme ‘f*ck’ possesses extremely negative connotations. However, it can also modify a positive adjective to intensify the feeling, for example in the declaratives ‘That was f*cking awesome!’ or ‘I f*cking love it!’ This enthusiasm and passion for something is also shown through the recent prominence of online social network sites’ titled ‘F*ck Yeah [something]’, for example ‘F*ck Yeah Ryan Gosling’ or ‘F*ck Yeah 1920s!’ One might anticipate a good time: it’s going to be so ‘fucking fun”. In these ways, swear words function as a means to communicate and reveal both positive and negative emotions between participants.
Contrastingly, it is common for people to use profanities in order to abuse or criticise others. Offensive name-calling is a form of psychological abuse. From a semantics perspective, discriminatory epithets such as ‘b*tch’, ‘c**ksucker’, ‘f*ggot’ and ‘f*ckhead’ are associated with gender, race or sexuality and are often carefully chosen to verbally offend the listener during arguments. Furthermore, from a discourse perspective, abbreviations often appear on online chat forums: these include ‘WTF’ (what the f*ck), ‘FFS’ (for f*cks sake) and ‘GTFO’ (get the f*ck out) have been formed for internet users in chat forums, comment sections or posts to vent with profane exclamations of annoyance whilst being euphemistic and without having to explicitly type out the swear word. Recently, a member of parliament, Peter Russo was on the record as saying another parliamentarian was a “fuckwit”. This comment sparked a media outrage, showing that it was used in an inappropriate way in a public context. Contrastingly, although Tom Gleeson used an expletive during the Gold Logie Award night, it was done with the intent of being jovial and subversive, and different. During his acceptance speech, he averred: “We should all lighten the f’ck up”.
Profanities can be used to express endearment, and reinforce in-group solidarity and rapport between social groups. Such terms may be age-dependent (they are more prevalent among the younger generation) and they often have a subversive quality which serves to reinforce boundaries between the in- and the out-group. (Quote K Burridge). Two interlocutors within a group may consolidate their intimacy and rapport by referring to each other as “b’tch” and “c’nt”. Accompanied with the non-standard personal pronoun “ya”, as in “ya sick c’nt” and “ya dickhead”, such terms can be interpreted as compliments. Likewise, politically incorrect terms such as “nigger” can be used among group members to consolidate group membership.
Not only are profanities a marker of group solidarity, they are also a marker of our Australian national identity — in particular, they indicate an “okker” personality. As Bill Hornadge states, “It has been said that the language of Australians is peppered with the three indispensable Bs – Bastard, Bloody and Bugger”. (154) These terms are used to consolidate a broad Australian membership , and in particular separate Australians from other nationalities. They are often the first words that a migrant learns in order to gain acceptance. Writers in the Bulletin named ‘bloody’ as the Great Australian Adjective (in 1894) explaining that it is called thus “because it is more used and used more exclusively by Australians than by any other allegedly civilised nation” (150). For example, in most of the English-speaking world, “bastard” pejoratively refers to someone who is illegitimate. However, as Hornadge notes, visitors are often shocked to find that it is even a term of affection among Australian speakers. (154) If we wish to praise someone, we often say: “He’s a good bastard”, meaning that he is a good fellow”. (154) These days, for example, Australian tradesman or ‘tradies’ often use an ‘excessive’ amount of swearing. However, the swear words, far from being abusive or rude, are “a tool used for building and maintaining positive affiliations between members of this unique culture.[1]” The use of profanities, specifically ‘f*ck’ and ‘c*nt’, amongst the tradesmen, as well as other ‘blue-collar’ workers is commonly associated with in-group membership.
The utilisation of profanities in Australia’s advertising industry provides a controversial, yet memorable impression on their audience and future buyers. Commercials and advertisements also have a communicative purpose. Swear words, due to their controversial nature, attract the attention of viewers, fulfilling the functions of the text. TAC’s ‘bloody idiot’ campaigns feature slogans such as ‘If you drink and drive, you’re a bloody idiot’ and ‘Just a little bit over? You bloody idiot’. Although the adjective ‘bloody’ and the noun ‘idiot’ are no longer considered to be a profanity, its usage and designed effect is still the same as a more taboo intensifier or insult. The stupidity of drink-driving and speeding are conveyed to drivers by the blunt dysphemisms, pun on the word ‘bloody’ and the attention-seeking use of ‘bloody idiot’ in the government’s attempt to discourage inconsiderate driving. TAC’s use of the modifier ‘bloody’ contrasts in purpose and effect to the Tourism Australia’s 2007 advertisement ‘So where the bloody hell are you?’ The popular Australian colloquialism, rather than being of shock value, encapsulates the informality and friendliness of Australians. It was successful in Australia, but less so in other countries because of the connotations of the word “bloody” which is endearing from Australians. Profanities are implemented by the commercial industry in various ways, depending on the nature and purpose, to attract the attention of readers and to communicate a wide range of information to them.
The use of profanities is prominent in contemporary Australian society due to a variety of roles it plays in both every-day and public discourse. Swear words are able to establish solidarity between social groups and provide an effective means of advertising and expression of emotions. These profane terms, though are not an essential part of language, truly defines modern society, its people and its culture.
[1] L Macleod (2011), Swearing in the ‘Tradie’ Environment as a Tool for Solidarity, Griffith University, pp1